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高中英语核心语法点汇编 part 36 连词
1 有关几个连词的用法问题
有几位读者在来信中问及有关几个连词的某些用法问题,现让我们讨论如下:
有一位同学来信说有一本高中英语总复习参考书认为:所转述的是选择问句时,须用连词 whether...or...而不用 if...or...引导宾语从句。如:
(1)I asked him, “Will you stay at home or go to a film tonight?”
须变为:
(2)I asked him whether he would stay at home or go to a film that night.
可是我们的老师却认为:
(3)“Did you come here by car or by train?”he asked.
也可以变为:
(4)He asked me if I had gone there by car or by train.
我们的老师说 if...or...相当于 whether...or...,所以是对的。到底孰是孰非,请解答。如能给我讲讲 whether 和 if 的不同,那就更好了。
让我们先讨论你的第一个问题。旧的语法书有的规定 if (=whether)从句不可用 or,也有的规定不可用 if...or not, 甚至有的规定 if 不可用来表示“是否”。但现在以上三种规定都被打破了。所以上述例(2)可用 whether,也可用 if。在当代英语里, whether 或 if 不但可引导两种选择(如例[2]中的“留在家里”与“去看电影”),甚至可引导三种选择乃至更多,如:
(5)I don't care whether (或if )you do your homework or play outside or go to bed.
你的老师所给你们的例(4)是对的。下面一些用 if 的句子也都是对的:
(6)I don't care if they join us or not. (句中用 if...or not, if 从句用作宾语)
(7)I can't find out if the flight has been delayed or if it has been cancelled. (句中if 从句皆用作宾语)
(8)It is doubtful if he is coming. (if 从句在此作主语)
这么说来, if(=whether)与 whether 是不是没有任何区别了呢?不,区别还是有的。首先, if 没有 whether 那么正式,它常用在非正式文体中,尤其常用口语里。此外,在下面一些句子中, whether 一般不可代之以 if:
(9)Whether she will be invited to the meeting is not known. (if 从句用作主语时则一般不可放在句首)
(10)The question whether he should come himself or send a substitute must be decided upon. (if 从句则一般不用作同位语,虽然偶尔也有人用)
(11)The question is whether it is worth doing. (if 从句则一般不用作表语,虽然有时也有人用)
(12)There is some doubt as to whether the document is genuine. (if 从句则不可用作介词宾语)
(13)I will write you whether or not I can come. (whether 后可直接跟 or not 或 or no, if 一般则不可)
(14)He didn't tell us whether to wait for him or go on without him.(if 后则不可接不定式)
(15)Whether you like it or not, you'll have to do it. (if 从句则不可表“无论”或“不论”)
(16)I'll tell you later whether I can find the time.(这里用 whether 较好,因为如说 I'll tell you later if I can find the time, if 会有歧义:它可以表是否,也可以表条件。但在笔语中如在 if 之前用一逗号,则只表条件)
(17)You have to justify whether your journey is necessary. (whether 在此并非引导一个间接疑问句,故一般也不可代之以 if)
说来很有趣,也有必须用 if 而不能用 whether 的情况,那就是当从句用于否定结构的时候,如:
(18)I don't care if he doesn't show up.
有一读者来信问《英语语法手册》认为引导名词性从句的关联词包括 if,也就是说, if 也可用于主语从句和表语从句,这种说法对吗?
关于 if (=whether)所引导的从句是否可用作主语的问题,我们在前面已涉及(见例[8]与例[9]的说明),这里不再重复。至于 if 从句是否可用作表语,一般语法书的回答似乎都是否定的。但也有语法家认为是可以用作表语的,其例证是:
(19)The first question I put to him was whether (or if )he would do it.
我们也见过下面这样一类的句子:
(20)The criterion for us to judge is if it will further the prosperity of the country.
我们的意见已在前面例(11)之后表明。尤其对我国广大学生来说,更是不宜将 if 从句用作表语。
有一读者来信说在阅读中遇到这样一句话:
(21)One bitter morning in February the little boy came...about an hour late, and screaming with pain.
他问: screaming with pain 这一分词短语之前为何用连词 and?
连词 and 在此表示一种附加情况,相当于汉语中的“而且”。它不但可用在分词短语之前,而且也可以用在其他不同场合,如:
(22)How could I tell what had become of him—and night coming on too. (and 与分词独立结构连用)
(23)You've been mighty good to me, and me a stranger and nothing to you all.(and 和无分词独立结构连用)
(24)They accepted it at once and with evident pleasure. (and 与介词短语连用)
(25)There is one thing to be settled, and quickly. (and 与副词连用)
(26)I cannot keep these plants alive and I have watered them well too.(and 和一分句连用)
and 表“而且”还可用于其他一些场合,这里就不一一举例了。
一读者来信问下面一句中的 and 是什么意思:
(27)They want to eat their cake and still have it.
英语有一谚语云:
(28)You cannot eat your cake and have it.
它是“二者不可得兼”的意思。上述例(27)即脱胎于此,其意是:他们竟想兼有二者,那是不可能的。上述两句中的连词 and=and at the same time,意谓“同时”。例(28)如直译成汉语,则是:你不能(又)吃糕饼,同时(又)具有之。
又一读者来信说有这样一道选择题:
(29)You may go out_________your work is done.
A.before B.where C.until D.as
答案似乎是 until,但为什么不用 may not 否定结构呢?
其实你自己已经否定了选择 until 的答案。你的否定是对的。这里不可用 until,应用意谓“因为”的 as。
又一读者在信中说,有这样一个句子:
(30)He recognized the man who had been his classmate ten years before, so he went over...
请问将第一分句改为分词短语之后,句中的 so 是否还须保留?
第一分句变为分词短语之后,句中的 so 必须去掉。全句应变作:
(31)Recognizing the man who had been his classmate ten years before, he went over...
这样,分词短语即表原因,所以就不能再用so了(英语习惯如此)。但请注意,如将例(30)转换成非并列句,则不仅可转换成例(31),亦可转换作:
(32)When he recognized the man who had been his classmate ten years before, he went over ...
2 连词可否被副词所修饰?
有一读者问:连词是否像介词一样可被副词所修饰以表强调?
是的,如连词 because 之前即可用 just 或 only修饰以示强调。其他连词如 before, after 等亦是如此。
3 这里可以用 and 吗?
有一读者问:有这样一句话: It is true that you can't see your books and the blackboard. 我认为此句中的连词 and 应改为 or,不知正确与否?
如果上下文清楚,不会产生歧义,这句话用 and 也是可以的。 但 and 用在否定结构中往往会有歧义,如:
(1)I don't know A and B.
这句话意味着:
(2)I don't know A and I don't know B either.
也可能意谓:
(3)I don't know both of them. I only know A.
再如:
(4)She didn't speak clearly and correctly.
这句话可能意谓:她讲的既不清楚也不正确。但也可能意谓:她讲得清楚,但不正确。在这种情况下,为了避免误会,就应该或说:
(5)She didn't speak clearly or correctly.
或说:
(6)She spoke clearly, but not correctly.
但有时并不会产生歧义,如:
(7)Bob didn't break the window and refuse to apologize for his action.
(8)In China's feudal past almost nothing was said about democracy and the rule of law.
4 这里的and可译作“或者”吗?
有一读者问:高中英语课本第一册上有这样一句话:
“If I had missed,” said William Tell, “and had shot too low, I was going to use this arrow on you.”
课本上是这样译的:“万一我没射中,”威廉·泰尔说,“或者射得太低了,我就打算用这支箭射你。”这里将原文译作“或者”,不知为什么?
这里所以用and是因为它所后接的had shot too low与其前的had missed是一回事,只是后者说得较前者更为具体而已。所以,将and译作“或者”是不妥当的。我们认为将and省去不译为好。
5 这个否定结构须用and
有一读者问: 问您在某期《英语沙龙》上所举的下面一例是什么意思:
(1)Bob didn't break the window and refuse to apologize for his action.
这里的refuse是否应改为refused,否则and怎样解释?
这句话中的didn't不单是否定动词break, 而同时也否定动词refuse,所以不可将refuse改为refused。请注意连词and在此应作“而且同时”解,因而全句的意思是:Bob并没有打破玻璃窗而同时又拒绝为此而道歉。这说明在这种句子中,否定词之后的并列成分之间须用and而不用or,再如:
(2)You cannot eat your cake and have it. (谚语,意谓“二者不可得兼”)
(3)It is impossible to see you and not love you.
(4)They do not sweat and whine about their condition.
(5)Don't be old and unfit for anything.
注意下面一句亦应用and:
(6)The family didn't have to worry about food and clothes. (food and clothes应看做不必分割开的一种事物,相当于汉语的“衣食”。如用or代替and,那就将food和clothes分割开了)
6 为何接连用and?
有一读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)I was weak and cold and hungry.
为什么连用and而不说:
(2)I was weak, cold and hungry.
句(2)是一般的说法。句(1)连用and是为了强调其后的词,故是一种强调的说法。这种强调结构常可遇到,再如:
(3)All about the garden is the roar of the city, like the sound of the sea; but within the gardens there is light and peace and blue air. (顺便请注意这里的garden与gardens同义,皆指一公园)
(4)Here for four very difficult years they worked every moment they could spare, weighing and boiling and measuring and calculating and thinking. (they指居里夫妇)
7 and连接两个谓语
有一读者问: and是并列连词,应当用于平行结构,但下面一句中and所在的平行结构是什么呢:
The man insisted that he had done nothing and not be sent to prison.
这里and所连接的是两个谓语:一个是had done(nothing),另一个是not be sent (to prison);也可以说and连接两个动词短语:一个是had done,另一个not be sent。请注意,not be sent是虚拟语气,多用于美国,英国多用should not be sent。
8 “名词短语+and...”相当于“条件从句+结果主句”
有一读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)Five minutes earlier_________we could have caught the last train.
A. but B. and C. or D. so
我认为应选B,但答案却不是B,你的看法呢?
你的看法是对的。“名词短语+and+虚拟语气句”可看作一种句型,再如:
(2)Only a couple of minutes later and you'd have made me blunder against the fellow poking about here with his damned dark lantern.
这种句型中的虚拟句亦可代之以陈述句,实例如:
(3)The slightest slip-up and we will be exposed.
读者一般对“祈使句+and+陈述句”结构比较熟悉,实例如:
(4)Try again and you will succeed.
但对上述“名词短语+and+陈述句或虚拟句”则可能不甚熟悉,所以应该对此加以注意。
9 as, when, while有何不同?
有一读者问: as, when和while皆表时间,但有何不同?
as常强调与主句同时,如:
(1)He trembled as he spoke.
有时与主句虽不同时,但相隔很近,如:
(2)As they came in, they set down their shovels.
when常表“当……之后”,如:
(3)Stop writing when the bell rings.
但也常表“同时”,如:
(4)It is cold when it snows.
(5)When I was going out, it began to rain.
while常表“在……期间”,如:
(6)Strike the iron while it is hot.
10 as=按照
有一读者问: 如何做这道选择题:
(1)Please put the magazines _____.
A. in which they were B. as they were
C. here you were D. here it was
应选B。请注意连词as在此的汉译与其说是“如同”,不如说是“按照”,再如:
(2)Take things as they are.(照现状)
(3)Come as you are.(照你现在这模样)
11 as在此表对照或对比
有一读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)Linda is buttoning up his jacket as he unbuttons it.
请分析一下句子末尾的as从句,并解释一下它的意思。
对于作“如同”或“像”解的连词as,当它引导一种肯定结构时,我国学生是比较熟悉的,至少是觉得容易理解的,如:
(2)Alone with Lamin, as he sometimes was, Kunta might pay his brother a bit more attention.
(3)The winners play each other tomorrow, as do the losers.
(4)Gradually his memory slipped a little, as memories do, even those with so much love attached to them.
我国学生对“否定结构+as+肯定结构”这样的句型也是能够理解的,如:
(5)His beard was no longer black, as it had been in the picture.
(6)We do not want our children to suffer war any more as we have suffered it.
但如遇到“肯定结构+as+否定结构”这样的句型,我国学生就不很熟悉甚至觉得难以理解了。上面所提问的句子就属于这种句型。这种句型中的连词as不但意谓“如同”或“像”,而且有表对照或对比的转折含义。上述句(1)的本义是:Linda在把他的上衣扣上,正如他常把他的上衣解开一样。而其实际含义则是:Linda在把他的上衣扣上,而他却常是把他的上衣解开的。这种表示对照或对比的句型并不罕见,再如:
(7)We are enjoying ourselves as we have never enjoyed ourselves before!
(8)You can hurt me as I cannot hurt you.
(9)And then there would be a child — a boy, whom he could...love as he did not love Charles.
(10)I felt, as I never had before, that without warning he might turn against me.
(11)Keith knew — as others did not — that the real responsibility for the tragedy was his own, not Perry Yount's.
(12)Mat had taken to that young woman as he did to few people.
有时as还可引导一个修辞性问句,如:
(13)Adele had often pictured her wedding to herself, as what young girl has not.
最后,还应该指出,as也可以在“肯定结构+as+肯定结构”的句型中表示对照或对比,如:
(14)He dreaded, as he hoped, to find her.
(15)You know that my fortunes have sunk as yours have risen.
12 关于“as+过去分词”结构
有一读者问: 有这样两个句子:
(1)The sellers agree to sell the goods subject to the terms and conditions as stipulated hereinafter.
(2)Should the named vessel arrive earlier than the date of arrival as previously notified to the sellers, the buyer shall advise the sellers in time.
如何解释以上两句中的“as+过去分词”?
“as+过去分词”是一种省略被动结构,连词as(意为“如同,按照”)之后省去了“主语+助动词be”。具体到上述句(1)和句(2),前者的as之后省去了they are, 后者的as之后省去了it was。这种“as+过去分词”结构常可遇到,尤其在书面语中,再如:
(3)Everything had happened exactly as expected . (as后省去it had been)
(4)He said that he would apologize to the worker if the facts were as stated . (as后省去they were)
“as+过去分词”之后可接表施动者的by短语,如:
(5)Socrates' conversations as reported by Plato were full of a shrewd humour. (as后省去they were)
顺便提一下,还有一种“关系代词as(本身无意义)+过去分词”省略被动结构,其中as之后省去了助动词be,如:
(6)Doctors may prepare, as required , sticks ranging from 0.23m to 0.5m in length. (as后省去is)
上述两种“as+过去分词”省略被动结构形式上虽然相同,但其语法结构大不一样。二者切切不可混淆。
13 as a dreamer should be何意?
有一读者问下面一句话是什么意思,应如何分析:
(1)He was as a dreamer should be.
这句话如直译应是:他就像是一个梦想家该是的那样。如意译的话,也许可译为:他简直是一副梦想家的样子。句中的as是一连词,有“简直就是”的含义;它引导着一个表语从句,这种表语从句并不罕见,再如:
(2)Things are not always as they appear.
as还常与just连用,如:
(3)It was just as I imagined.
14 这里的as从句为何是方式状语?
有一读者问: 下面两句中的as从句为何是方式状语:
(1)As a man sows, so he will reap.
(2)As you make your bed, so you must lie in it.
as..., so...是一种很古老的句型。这里用了两个连词as和so,有的语法家将它们称作“双重指示(double demonstrative)”。这一句型本来是用以表示比较的。as意谓“正如”,所以as从句自然是一方式状语从句。这种用法经久不衰,至今仍常见于比较文雅的语体中,如:
(3)As rust eats iron, so care eats the heart.
(4)As the arrow is to the target, so is Marxism-Leninism to the Chinese revolution.
(5)As times change, so should people's ideas. (注意people's ideas之后省去了change。as times change可译作“随着时代的变迁”)
as之前还常用just,以加强语气,如:
(6)Just as unselfishness is the real test of strong affection, so unselfishness ought to be the real test of the very highest kind of art.
但正如一位语法大师所指出的那样,这种句型所表示的比较关系有时则与因果关系混同起来。你所提问的两个句子就是两个比较明显的例证。这两个句子显然不是表示比较,而是表示因果;而其中的as从句显然也不是表示方式而是表示原因了。
但请注意:用as...so...句型表示因果的现象已属古旧,在当代英语中已很少见了。
15 as we know it 与 as we know
有一读者问:有这样一句话:
(1)When modernization is achieved, China as we know it will have disappeared.
有人说,“按语法,这句要译为‘现代化实现时,据我们所知,中国将消失了。’”请问将 China as we know it...译为“据我们所知,中国……”是正确译法吗?
将as we know it 译作“据我们所知”,想是将 as we know it 误看成 as we know 所致。as we know it 与 as we know 不论在意义上或是在语法上皆不相同。as we know 比较常见,其意为“我们都知道”,实例如:
(2)Taiwan, as we know , is an inseparable part of China.
(3)As we know , smoking is harmful to the health.
从语法上讲,as we know 是一非限制性定语从句,as 一般皆被看作是一关系代词。
as we know it 则是一比较状语从句,as是一连词,其义为“正如”,强调同一性。China as we know it 应译作“我们所知之中国”。这种结构也不罕见,再如:
(4)There's no life on Mars as we know it .
(5)She relates everything as she saw it and felt it .
(6)He did not care for classical form, as the school of Pope understood it .
(7)It is essential to recognize that the statute takes on real meaning only as the courts interpret it .
(8)How do you like the name as I changed it ?
(9)We do not want our children to suffer war any more as we have suffered it .
16 为何用such as there are?
有一读者问: 有这样一个句子:
(1)I've read the business post and property post of today's South China Morning post, such as there are.
为什么这里要用such as there are?
从语义来讲,such as there are意为“虽然只有这一些”,其含义是“所可谈的不多”。从语法结构来讲,这是一个倒装的让步状语从句。such是一指示代词,在此用作there be结构中的主语,为了强调,所以置于从句之首。as是连词,意为“虽然”。这种倒装结构“代词或零冠词+名词+as...”,不乏其例,再举二三例即可:
(2)Child as he is , he knows what's the right thing to do.
(3)You may use my bike, such as it is . (such as it is =虽然它不怎么好)
17 这里Hollow as it is中的as意为“因为”
有一读者问: 这样一道选择题:
(1)______________as it is, bamboo is very light.
A. Empty B. Space C. Hollow D. Thick
我认为应选D,因为as在此应作“虽然”解,而答案却是C,不知是何缘故?
在上述句(1)的句型中,as的确常作“虽然”解,如:
(2)Young as he is, he is able.
但as有时亦可作“因为”解,上述句(1)中的as即作此解,故应选C,再如:
(3)Young as he was, it is natural that he should have acted so foolishly.
18 “the same + 名词”与“such + 名词”后 as 与 that 的区别
有一读者问:“the same + 名词”之后用 as 与用 that 有何区别?又,“such + 名词”之后用 as 与用 that 有何区别?
让我们先谈第一个问题。曾经有人说过,在“the same + 名词 + 定语从句”这一结构中,the same 如意味着“同样的”,其后的定语从句应由关系代词 as 所引导,如:
(1)He uses the same book as you do.
但 the same 如意味着“同一的”,其后的定语从句则应由关系代词 that 所引导,如:
(2)He works in the same shop that I do.
然而在当代英语中,上述 as 与 that 二者之间已没有不可逾越的鸿沟了。如 the same 表“同样的”时,其后也可以用 that:
(3)He uses the same book that you do.
同样,the same 表“同一的”时,其后也可以用 as,如:
(4)He works in the same shop as I do.
你可能要问:上述两种情况既然都可以用 as 和 that,那么它们之间有没有区别呢?答案是:有区别。它们的主要区别有三:一是当 the same 表“同样的”时,其后似乎多用 as;当 the same 表“同一的”时,其后似乎多用 that。二是关系代词 that 用作宾语时可省去(如 she is the same girl (that)I sat next to in class last year),关系代词 as 则不可省去。三是关系代词 as 除代表其前的先行词(即名词)外,还有其本身的“如同”的含义;关系代词 that 则除代表其先行词外,则别无其他含义。换言之,as 除表先行词外,还侧重句子中的动作,that 则只侧重先行词的意义。且以上述例(1)与例(3)为例。例(1)中的 as 除代表其前的先行词 book 之外,还有比较主句中的动词 uses 与从句中的动词 do 的作用。从句 as you do 除用作定语从句外,同时还表示一种方式,其含义是“你同样也用这样的书”,而且你这样做是有你的理由的。例(3)中的 that 从句则只指代其前的 book,其他含义是没有的。例(2)的 that 与例(4)的 as 的区别也是一样,我们就不赘述了。
正是由于上述 as 与 that 的区别,因而产生了一些只能用 as 而不能用 that 的情况,这主要表现在简略定语从句结构(不含谓语动词)中,如:
(5)I read the same book as you. (the same 表“同样的”)
(6)He gave the same answer as before. (the same 表“同一的”)
为什么 as 可以引导一简略定语从句而 that 却不能呢?理由很简单,因为前面已提到过,as 在用作关系代词的同时还有相当于表“如同”的连词的含义,而 that 则无此种另外的含义。
那么有没有只能用 that 而不能用 as 的情况呢?这种情况也是有的,如:
(7)This is the same watch that I lost. (the same 在此有歧义,可能表“同一的”,也可能表“同样的”,究竟表哪一种含义,应视上下文而定)
但不可说 This is the same watch as I lost., 因为 as 在此不能对表状态的动词 is 与表动作的动词 lost 进行比较。所以这句话应改为:
(8)This is the same kind of watch as I lost. (但这样一改,as 就不是关系代词而是连词了)
你可能又要问:照你这样说来,像“this is the same + 名词”这样的结构之后难道就不可用关系代词 as 了吗?答案是“可以的”。比如下面一句话既可用 that,也可用 as:
(9)This is the same tune that (或 as )I heard yesterday. (这里为什么却可用 as 呢?其原因是这里的 This is the same tune 暗含着“我现在所听的”的意思。这样,as 就在比较昨天的“听”与现在的“听”这两个可比较的动词了)
最后请注意下面一些句中的“the same + 名词”之后的 as 不是关系代词而是连词:
(10)I'm the same age as you are.
(11)I'm of the same opinion as you.
(12)I don't feel the same thing as I did two weeks ago.
(13)She wears the same kind of clothes as her sister usually does.
下面句子中“the same + 名词”结构之后的 that 也是连词:
(14)Mr.Dowden has the poetical temperament to the same degree that Mr.Gosse has.
下面句子中的“the same + 名词”之后的 that 则是关系副词:
(15)At the same time that she was preparing her lessons, she had to look after the store.
the same way 之后可接 as,亦可接 that,但它们都是连词,如:
(16)We rode the same way as we had come out the evening before.
(17)My mother feels the same way about it that you do, Mr.Winslow.
现在让我们谈第二个问题,即“such + 名词”之后用 as 与用 that 有什么区别的问题。这个问题比较简单,试比较下面两个例句:
(18)Here is such a big stone that no man can lift it.
(19)Here is such a big stone as no man can lift.
显而易见,例 (18)中的 that 是一连词(意味着“以至于”),它所引导的是一表程度或结果的状语从句,其中的 it 不可省去;而例 (19)中的 as 则是一关系代词(但仍有“如同”的含义),它所引导的是一修饰名词 stone 的定语从句,并在从句中用作宾语,所以从句中不可再用 it。因此,上述两例的意思也不相同。例 (18)的意思是:这儿有一块如此大的石头,以致无人能搬得起。例 (19)意思是:这儿有一块如此大的无人能搬得起的石头。前者表石头大的程度或结果,后者表如此大的这一类石头。
19 关于As..., so...句型
有一读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)As, after his death, he defeated the force of injustice, _________the position in art that had been kept from him during his life.
A. so did he gain B. so he gained
C. and he gained D. and gained
答案是A,为什么不可选B呢?
这句话用的句型是As..., so...。这是一种较为古旧的句型。这不是一种并列句,而是一种主从复合句。在这一复合句中,常将表示比较(即犹如,同样也)的as从句置于句首,以强调副词so引导的主句。此一句型常用于谚语、比例等,如:
(2)As rust eats iron, so care eats the heart.
(3)As two is to three, so four is to six.
此句型也常用于内含因果的谚语,如:
(4)As a man sows, so he shall reap.
种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆。
(5)As you make your bed, so you must lie on it. 自作自受。
(6)As a man lives, so he dies.
有生必有死。
这种句型也可以活用,如:
(7)As you like music, so I like poetry.
(8)As the emergence of one achievement is followed by another, so the overcoming of one defeat or mistake may be followed by a new one which must in turn be overcome.
(9)As the two countries are mending their relationship, so now both sides are giving their border gates a facelift.
在口语中,则可用just as..., so..., 如:
(10)Just as a moth is attracted by a light, so he was fascinated by her.
(11)Just as unselfishness is the real test of strong emotion, so unselfishness ought to be the real test of the very highest kind of art.
为了强调主句中的副词so,主句即可用倒装结构,将助动词或be和have移至主语之前,上述句(3)与句(6)即可分别变为:
(12)As two is to three, so is four to six.
(13)As a man lives, so shall he die.
再如:
(14)As times change, so should people's ideas.
(15)As the arrow is to the target, so is Marxism-Leninism to the Chinese revolution.
因此,具体到上述句(1),既可选A,亦可选B,但如要顺调so,那就应选A。
20 It isn't as if... 是什么意思?
有一读者问:下面一句是什么意思:
(1)It isn't as if he were poor.
这句话可直译为:他不像是贫穷的样子。其实际含义是:他又不穷!或:他才不穷呢!再如:
(2)Why was James at the party? It was not as if he were a relative. (后一句可译为:他又不是什么亲戚!)
(3)It isn't as if I'd given him to believe that I was experienced! I made it clear that I wasn't. (第一句可译为:我又没有要他信以为我是训练有素的呀!)
It isn't as if...也可后接一否定结构,如:
(4)Why doesn't she buy us a drink? It isn't as if she had no money. (第二句可译为:她又不是没有钱!或:她有的是钱!)
不消说,也可用肯定结构 It is as if...,如:
(5)I couldn't move my legs. It was as if they were stuck to the floor.
(6)It is as if there were some psychic healing tissue.
注意上述结构中,as if 之后既可用虚拟时态,如例 (1)、(2)、(4)、(5)、(6),亦可用普通时态,如例 (3)。
21 soon as 与 no sooner ...than 有无区别?
有一读者问:as soon as 与 no sooner...than 都意谓“一……就……”,但在用法上有没有区别呢?
请先看下面两组句子:
(1)I'll tell him as soon as I see him.
(2)As soon as the weavers heard the Emperor coming, they pretended to work harder than ever.
(3)He had no sooner heard it than he started back home.
(4)No sooner had he arrived home than he was asked to start on another journey.
从上面两组例句至少可以看出 as soon as 与 no sooner...than...有下列三点差异:
1. as soon as 从句中可用现在一般时与过去一般时,而含有 no sooner...than 的句子的主要动词则一般须用过去完成时。
2. as soon as 强调时间概念, no sooner...than 则强调次序概念,具有 immediately after (紧接着)的含义。
3. as soon as 从句的动作与主句的动作二者一般比较协调,没有什么矛盾或冲突,如例(2); no sooner...than 则往往表示句中两个动作是不协调的,是有矛盾的,如例(4)。
22 如何解释这里的 because?
有一读者问:有这样一句话:
I think that our company should offer jobs to people for one reason only:because he or she can do the job better than anyone alse.
如何解释这里的 because?
这里的 because 从句与其前的 one reason 同位。用 because 回答 reason (理由)是英美人的一种口语(colloquial)用法,虽有人反对,但似已积重难返。严格说来,这里应用 that。
23 before与until的区别
有一读者问: 有这样一道题:
(1)We'll not arrive there_________the sun rises.
A. before B. until
为什么只能选B?
这里之所以选B是由句子的本义决定的。我们知道,until的意思是“直到……为止”,侧重以后选了until,全句的意思就是“我们到日出时才能到达那里”。until常可与not等否定词连用,再如:
(2)He did not leave his post until he had finished the last operation.
(3)Not until I left college did I realize it.
(4)It was not until I had read over your letter that I understood the true state of affairs.
(5)He paid no attention to my warning until he had an accident.
before的意思是“在……之前的任何时候”,侧重以前。如选before,上述句(1)的意思就变成“在日出以前的任何时候我们都不会到达那里”,这一般不会是句子的本意的。但这并不是说before不可与否定词连用,相反地,它也可与否定词连用,如:
(6)It won't be long before spring comes.
(7)It was not many minutes before he sank into unconsciousness.
注意以上两句的重点皆为before从句,另如:
(8)You can't go before the rain has stopped.
(9)He had not seen me before I saw him.
(10)He never waited to hear my answer before he'd resume his conversation with Bailey.
在上述结构中,有时before亦可代之以until,但二者的意义与侧重点不同。且以上述句(9)为例,其意为:我看见他之前,他没有看见我。如用until代替before,全句则意为:他到我看见他时才看到我。
另外,before和until还有两点不同之处:一是before可移至句首,如上述句(9)即可变为:
(11)Before I saw him he had not seen me.
until如被移至句首,其前则须带not, 如上述句(3)。二是until可用否定结构,如:
(12)I have dirtied my hands at it until they're not fit for clean work.
而before之后则是不可用not等否定词的。
24 but = that...not
有一读者问:有这样一句话:
(1)No country is so wild and difficult but men will make it a theater of war.
问这个句子是什么意思? but 在此起什么作用?
这个句子的意思是:不论多么荒凉难行的地方,人们都会将它变为一个战区。这里的连词 but = that...not, but men = that men will not。这种具有否定意义的 but 常用在较文的语体中,再如:
(2)No man is so bad but he may have some redeeming point. 再坏的人也有其可取之处。
(3)It never rains but it pours. (谚语)祸不单行。
(4)Not a day passes but it rains. 无一日无雨。
除可用在否定结构外,but 还可作为关系代词用在疑问句中,如:
(5)Who is there but errs? 谁能无过?
25 but 和 yet 的区别
有一读者问:but 和 yet 都是转折连词,它们的用法有何区别?
转折连词一般指 but, yet, however, nevertheless 等,这也就是说,它包括并列连词与一些连接副词。
but 与 yet 的不同之处,首先在于 but 是并列连词,yet 则既可用作并列连词,亦可用作连接副词。让我们先将作为并列连词的 but 和 yet 大致区别如下:
先看并列连词 but。but 的用法主要有二。其一是表示前后对照时,二者并不彼此形成对立或矛盾,如:
(1)He is tall but his sister is short. (but 在此可译作“而”)
(2)It's not a pen, but a pencil. (but 常用在一否定结构之后,这里 but 可译作“而是”)
(3)She is not only a writer, but a critic. (but 在此用在一固定句型中)
(4)Excuse me, but will you show me the way to the station? (but 常用在 excuse me, sorry 等词语之后)
(5)—Let's play a trick on her.
—But how? (“but + 疑问词”结构常用在反问中)
(6)—Why didn't you go?
—Oh, but I did go. (感叹词,oh,ah 等常后接 but)
其二,but 表示前后对照时,二者亦可含有对立或矛盾,但一般都比较轻松自然,无甚出人意外之处,如:
(7)The hero is dead, but his name still lives.
(8)She is American but she lives in England.
(9)I would like to come, but I can't.
(10)—It's time to go home.
—But It's only nine o'clock.
(11)—Why didn't you go?
—But I did.
(12)You may not believe it, but that's true. (but 常与 may 连用)
(13)He is old, indeed, but he is healthy. (but 常与 of course, indeed, it is true 等词语连用)
然后再看并列连词 yet。yet 表示前后对照时,一般总是意味着二者不仅对立或矛盾,而且这种对立或矛盾往往是比较强烈的,是出人意外的,如:
(14)He worked hard, yet he failed.
(15)I miss him, yet I am glad he went.
(16)He has read through the book, yet he knows nothing about it.
(17)Jane said she was ill, yet I saw her in the street just now.
(18)The tongue is not steel yet it cuts. (谚语)
为了说明 yet 所表示的对立或矛盾较 but 强烈,我们愿再引用美国出版的一本具有权威性的同义词词典对这两个并列连词所做的比较:
(19)This is not winter, but it is almost as cold.
(20)It is well on in May, yet it is almost as cold as in midwinter.
你看例 (20)中 yet 所表示的对立或矛盾不是明显地比例 (19)中的 but 强烈吗?
然而人们并不如此严格地将 yet 与 but 加以区分。他们常常将 yet 用作 but,如:
(21)She sold her house, yet she can't help regretting it. (yet 在此显然并不表示一种强烈的出人意外的矛盾)
yet 除可用作并列连词外,还可用作连接副词,正唯其如此,它可以与并列连词 and 或 but 连用,构成常见的 and yet 或 but yet (常用在口语中),实例如:
(22)They are the same and yet not the same.
(23)The logic seems sound, but yet it does not convince me.
最后,让我们谈谈 although (或 though)...yet...这一结构中的 yet 应是什么词类的问题。我们都知道 although (或 though)...yet...结构只可用 yet (常可不用),但不可用 but。如:
(24)Although they are rich, yet they are not happy.
可是为什么不可用 but 呢? yet 在此是什么词类呢?我们认为,这两个问题其实是一个问题。其答案应该是:正是因为 yet 不是并列连词,而是连接副词,所以 although (或 though)之后可用 yet 而不可用并列连词 but。事实上,一个由从属连词 (包括 although 或though)引导的从句一般皆不可后接一并列连词 (包括 but),但后接一连接副词则是可以的。
26 but no one何意?
有一读者问: 有这样一个句子:
(1)Everyone knew that Little Man was in big trouble for no one, but no one, ever called Little Man “Clayton Chester” unless she or he meant serious business.
这里的but no one是什么意思?
but no one在此是一插入语,but在此用以强调no one,可译作“确实是”,再如:
(2)It had everything but everything , even an indoor waterfall.
27 but怎能与although连用?
有一读者问: 有这样一个句子:
But here the teacher and her pupils were doing just that, although the Russians had spies everywhere in Warsaw.
句中的but与although为何连用?
这里的but(表示转折)只与前文有关,而和其后的although并没有直接的关系。注意although之前有一逗号,说明although从句在此只是一添补之词。这种添补的词之前常有逗号,不可用于句首。又不可在句中看到有although和but二词,即认为是错误的。
28 作“是否”解的 if 之后可用 or not 吗?
有一读者问:连词 if 作“是否”解时可否与 or 连用?语法书上说不可,但我们却遇到这样的句子:
(1)The cat saw the parrot and wanted to know if it was a bird or not.
对连词 if 意谓“是否”时是否可以与 or 连用的问题,答案是肯定的。如果你查阅一下具有权威性的《朗文当代英语词典》,你就会看到 whether 一词的定义就是 if...or not。所以问题中所引的句子是完全正确的。含有 if...or 的句子常可碰到,再如:
(2)I don't care if they join us or not.
(3)I asked them if they wanted meat or fish.
连词 if 不但可用以表示两种选择,甚至可表示两种以上的选择,如:
(4)I don't care if you do your homework or play outside or go to bed.
但要注意,连词 if 作“是否”解时,其后一般不可直接跟 or 或 or not,如一般不说 I will write you if or not I can come,但可用 whether 说:
(5)I will write you whether or not I can come.
顺便提及,if (=是否)没有 whether 那么正式,它常用在口语中。当它引导宾语从句时,其前常用 ask, doubt, wonder, learn, know, remember, determine 等动词,也可用 depend on, find out, don't care 等短语。除此之外,if (=是否)与 whether 还有一些不同之处,可参看前文有关部分,这里就恕不赘述了。
29 这里不可用 if 吗?
有一读者问:初中英语第五册上有一范例:
(1)“Does everyone want to go?” he asked.
→He asked if everyone wanted to go.
可是我们的老师说动词不定式前只能用 whether 不可用 if,这个范例用 if 是否错了?
文中的范例与你老师所讲的话都不错。你的老师的意思是:动词不定式不可紧跟在 if (作“是否”解)之后,但可紧跟在 whether 之后,如:
(2)I don't know whether to go or to stay.(这里不可用 if 代替 whether)
(3)I wondered whether to phone you.(这里也不可用 if 代替 whether)
但如果动词不定式并不紧跟在 if 之后,if 则是可用的。如你所引的范例,即可用 if,因为动词不定式置于 wanted 之后(用作 wanted 的宾语),并非紧跟在 if 之后。当然,如果你愿意的话,这里也可用 whether 代替 if。
30 if ... not 与 unless 的区别
有一读者问:if...not 与 unless 是否可以互换?它们有无不同?
在条件句中,if...not 与 unless 确是常常可以互换使用,而其意义并无什么不同,如:
(1)If you don't change your mind I won't be able to help you. (亦可用 unless)
(2)Unless you correct a great many times, you will never be able to write good English. (亦可用 if...not)
但 unless 的语气较强,所以在最后通牒中多用 unless,如:
(3)Unless the management improve their offer, there will be a strike.
但下面句子中的 if...not 则不可代之以 unless,因为 unless 总是意味着 except on the condition that(除非):
(4)I'll be surprised if he doesn't win.
由于同样的原因,unless 一般也不可用以表非真实条件,所以下面一句中也必须用 if...not:
(5)She'd be better company if she didn't complain so much.
反之,有时 unless 也不可代之以 if...not。这种 unless 常引导一个用作添补词语的从句,置于主句之后,并常用破折号隔开,如:
(6)I couldn't have got to the meetting on time — unless I had caught an earlier train.
这里的 unless 从句意味着“除非我赶上了早一班火车”。所以说话人未能按时到会。如果将 if...not 代替了 unless,写作:
(7)I couldn't have got to the meeting on time if I hadn't caught an earlier train.
其意则恰恰相反,变成了“我如不是赶上早一班火车,就不会按时到会了”。由此可以看出,if...not 和 unless 的区别有时还会是很大的,不是吗?
31 这里的 if 和 though 是从属连词吗?
有一读者问:《英语语法手册》中,从属连词的定义是引导从句的连词。但下面句子中引导省略从句的 if, while 和 though 是否是从属连词呢:
(1)Yet there is general agreement that US auto industry will eventually emerge in healthier, if leaner, condition.
(2)While respected, he is not liked.
(3)He spoke firmly though pleasantly.
上述三句的情况,并不完全相同。例(2)中的 while respected 是一省略或缩略的让步状语从句,其原结构是 while he is respected,所以 while 在此显然是一从属连词。
但例(1)与例(3)就是另外一回事了。这两个句子里的 if leaner 和 though pleasantly 并不是省略了什么的从句,所以 if 和 though 并不是从属连词。那么它们是什么连词呢?
我们说,在这里它们和 and, or, but, yet 等一样,也是等立连词。如将例(3)改写为:
(4)He spoke pleasantly but firmly.(或用 yet)
即可明显地看出这一点。所不同者,if 和 though 用作等立连词时,则只能连接单词和短语,而不能连接句子。这样的等立连词,除了 if 和 though 外,还有一个比较文气的 albeit (=even though),比如例(3)也可以改写为:
(5)He spoke firmly albeit pleasantly.
32 谈谈if anything
有一些读者问到 if anything 是什么意思?如何用?其结构如何?
让我们先谈它的结构。它显然是一省略结构,和 if any 一样,都省去了 if 后的 there be。它已成为一个固定的习语,其原本结构已不为人所用。
关于 if anything 的意义,各家的解释不尽相同。其本义自然是 if there is anything (如有什么的话)。有的词典则说得较为明确:if anything = if anything definite can be said, this is it (如可表明什么,那就是它了)。但在不同的上下文中,if anything 则有不同的具体含义。据手头上的资料,计有:
1. perhaps even 或许,甚至
2. if at all 如果可说什么的话
3. if there is any difference 如有所不同
4. more likely 更可能的是
5. instead 相反
6. rather 勿宁说
7. on the contrary even 恰恰相反,甚至……
从翻译的角度来看,译文除上述的直译外,还有:
8. 要说呢,倒是……
9. 说起来
10. 总之
当然有时可以不译。
if anything 多用于口语或非正式文体中,其用法主要有二:一是表示没有把握或委婉客气,如:
(1)If anything , he is a little better today.
(2)If anything , he felt pity.
(3)If anything , you ought to apologize.
(4)He seems to have little, if anything , to do with this.
(5)Things are, if anything , improving.
(6)He was known as a woman hater, if anything .
(7)If anything , my concert was my personal expression of the thanks and friendship to the Chinese people and of my love for the Chinese culture.
(8)—Have you done any reading these days?
—Not much, if anything .
二是用在一否定结构之后表示“相反”,如:
(9)Joe isn't a bad boy. If anything , he's a pretty good one.
(10)He's not thin —if anything he's rather on the plump side.
(11)The weather forecast is not for cooler weather; if anything , it is expected to be warmer.
(12)—Is Li a diligent student?
—No, but he is a lazy one, if anything . (if anything 在此也可以说 = if he is anything)
有时 if anything 之前并非一否定结构,但仍表“相反”,如:
(13)Despite optimistic reports, conditions had if anything worsened.
最后,请注意 if anything 在句中的位置比较灵活。它可以位于句首,如上述例 (1)、(2)、(3)等;也可以位于句中,如上述例 (4)、(5)、(13)等;也可以位于句末,如上述例 (6)、(8)、(12)等。
33 if有时不可代替whether
有一读者问: 有的书上说,当if的意义不明确时,它就不能代替whether,对吗?
你所引的那本书所讲的规则并不错。例如:
Tell me if you are tired.
这里的if的意义就不好确定是“假如”还是“是否”。如说话人意指“是否”,就应将if改为whether。如表“假如”,if之前应有一逗号。
34 应选if
有一读者问:有这样一道题:
I don't care_________it doesn't rain.
A.if B.whether C.what D.all what
为何选A不选B?
这里应选A,因为 if 在此意为“假如”。I don't care 之后可接 whether 所引导的肯定结构,但一般不可接其所引导的否定结构。
35 if only 与 only if
有一读者问:if only 与 only if 有什么区别?
二者都可看作短语从属连词,用以引导条件从句。if only 常用以引导一无结果主句的条件从句,表示愿望,相当于一感叹句,其谓语动词常用虚拟语气,如:
(1)If only there were forty-eight hours in every day.
(2)If only he could have lived a little longer.
if only 从句亦可用陈述语气,如:
(3)If only I haven't lost my watch!
if 与 only 亦可分开,如:
(4)If I only knew!(=If only I knew!)
(5)Oh, if I only had my life to live over again!
if only 有时则意为“只要”,如:
(6)If only somebody had told us, we would have warned you.
现在让我们谈谈 only if。这个短语连词常意为“只要”,实例如:
(7)He will take the job only if you give him a large salary.
(8)I could have lent him the bike only if he'd asked.
但请注意下面句子中 only if 的用法:
(9)You can come back. But only if you do what I say.(这句话的意思是:你不能回来,除非你听命于我。)
36 in that是一短语连词
有一读者问: 上海交大主编的《英语》第二册有这样一句话:
(1)It is like a pencil of light in that it has nearly paralled sides.
此句中的in应作何解释,语法上作什么?
我们手头无此书,故不知上下文如何。如无特殊情况,in that一般被看作是一短语连词,不再作内部分析,其义相当于because,再如:
(2)This is not a good plant for your garden in that its seeds are poisonous.
(3)The evidence is invalid in that it was obtained through illegal means.
37 如何分析 like mad?
有一读者问:我们常常遇到 like mad 这一短语,如 He ran like mad。如何分析这里的 like?它是介词吗?
这里的 like 显然不是介词,因为其后的 mad 不是名词,而是形容词。like 在此是一连词,实际上相当于 as if。 He ran like mad 实际上相当于 He ran as if (he were)mad。 like mad 之前常用动态动词,如 work, drive, complain, smoke 等。 like mad 已成为一个固定词组,一般可以不做分析。但偶尔亦有 like 后接其他形容词的情况,如 She was lying on the floor like dead with wounds dark on her wrist and the blood squirting out。
38 这里应选用neither do I
有一读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)If you don't go to the cinema, _____.
A. nor will I B. I don't go to the cinema, too
C. neither do I D. I won't go to the cinema, too
答案为C,为什么不是A呢?
在上述句(1)的句型中,不但if从句应用现在一般时,其主句亦可用现在一般时表示一种必然的结果或安排,所以这里应选C。再如:
(2)If you lose it, you lose everything.
(3)If we miss tonight's train, we have to wait a whole week.
A之不妥处在于: 将来一般时在此表意愿,不合句意。
39 关于nor的用法
有一读者来信问到nor的用法。他先说有这样一句话:
(1)No one who has never been placed in a like position can understand my feeling at this hour, nor the oppressive sadness I felt at this parting.
接着说一般nor引导的句子是助动词或情态动词提前,于是问道:这里的nor是否属于特殊情况? 它是连词还是副词?
一般说来,nor有下列三种用法:
1. 与neither一起构成关联连词,例如:
(2)He can neither sing nor dance.
(3)Neither the train nor the bus will get us there on time.
2. 作为连词与not, no等否定词连用,上述句(1)中的nor即属于这种用法,与no连用,与not连用的实例如:
(4)Not a man, nor a woman, is to be seen. (注意nor前有逗号)
这里的nor在当今英语里往往被代之以or,如上述句(4)即可改作:
(5)Not a man or a woman is to be seen. (注意or之前无逗号)
但nor的语气显得较or要重,如:
(6)I recommend that you have nothing further to do with this person nor with these arms transfers.
请注意:在以上两种用法中,nor皆可接连使用,实例如:
(7)Strangely, neither Betty nor Bob nor Juan saw what had happend.
(8)Meanie was not to be found not that day, nor the next day, nor the day after that.
3. 作为副词引导倒装句,实例如:
(9)I could not understand a word they said, nor could they understand me.
注意上述句(2)和句(3)皆可将nor改用作副词,引导一倒装句,如句(2)即可改为:
(10)He cannot sing, nor can he dance.
一般语法书和词典都将这里的nor看做连词,其实将这里的nor(以及neither)看作副词似乎更为合理,有的新近出版的英国词典就是这样认为的。我们这样看的理由有二: 一是应将这种nor (以及neither)和副词never等视作一类,而nor之可以引导倒装句,正如never可引导倒装句一样:
(11)Never did he speak about his own merits.
二是这种nor之前可以有连词and(以及but),实例如:
(12)I could not afford to eat in restaurants and nor could anyone I knew.
如果这里的nor是一连词,它之前怎能再用一个连词呢。
除上述所列的一般用法外,副词nor还有两种较为特殊的用法:
1. 有时可以用在肯定结构之后,实例如:
(13)The tale is long, nor have I heard it out.
2. 主要在英国,nor还可以在下面一类的句子中,代替neither:
(14)— I've never been to Iceland.
— Nor have I.
但回答中的主语亦可指对方而说:
— Nor you have.
这时nor倒像是副词so的反义词了。
关于nor的各种用法就谈到这里。
40 这里的 nor 作何解?
有一读者问:小说《简·爱》 (Jane Eyre )第17章有这样两句对话:
(1)“Mr. Rochester, I thought you were not fond of children?”“Nor am I.”
第18章末尾又有这样一段对话:
(2)“If you like, miss,”said Sam,“I'll wait in the hall for you; and if she frightens you, just call and I'll come in.”
“No, Sam, return to the kitchen:I am not in the least afraid.”Nor was I; but I was a good deal interested and excited.
这两段对话中的 nor 作何解?似乎并不相当于 and also not 吧?
nor(以及 neither)的这种以倒装形式对前一否定结构表示赞同的情况比较少见。一般用 nor(或 neither)来表示赞同一否定结构时,都用 SV (主+谓)次序,如:
(3)—You would insist that you didn't like her playing.
—Nor I did.
(4)—You were saying the other day that you hadn't seen Clemmie for five years.
—Nor I have.
但有时亦可用“nor+谓语+主语”结构表示对前文中否定结构的赞同,上述对话(1)与(2)即是较为典型的例子,再如:
(5)As to Bertie, one would have imagined from the sound of his voice and the gleam of his eye that he had not a sorrow nor a care in the world. Nor had he.
从语法讲,nor 在此是一连词(也有人将它唤作连接副词)。从其含义来讲,“nor+谓语+主语”与“nor+主语+谓语”这两种次序似乎并无不同。
41 这里nor=or
有一读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)He did not send me a card_________go to the party.
A. or B. nor
答案是A,B错在哪里?
这里既可用or,亦可用nor。这里nor可与or通用,再如下面句子中的or皆可代之以nor:
(2)I will not agree to that, or even consider it.
(3)I want no notes or promises.
但据一位美国学者说,nor在此的语气强于or。
42 not only可与助动词do连用吗?
有一读者问: 在初中英语教学参考书中有这样两个句子:
(1)The scientist does not only know English very well, but also knows Russian and German very well.
(2)The pianist did not only give them a lot of advice, but also played some wonderful pieces for them.
问这里用助动词do是否有误?
按理说,你所举的这两个句子中的not所否定的并不是谓语动词,而是副词only,所以不应该用助动词do而应分别改为:
(3)The scientist not only knows English very well, but also knows Russian and German very well. (此句用词似嫌重复,建议改为The scientist knows not only English but also Russian and German.)
(4)The pianist not only gave them a lot of advice, but also played some wonderful pieces for them.
但实际上,人们并不完全照章办事,而是往往在not only之前加上助动词do,好像not是否定谓语动词似的。所以,例(1)与例(2)用助动词do并没有错。但请注意,在当代英语里,较为常用的结构是例(3)与例(4),例(1)与例(2)似乎较少见了。
顺便说一下,下面not only与but also不对称的句子也是常见的:
(5)He not only plays the piano, but also the violin.
按理说,not only与but also应该对称,后接同样的词类,例(5)应改为:
(6)He plays not only the piano, but also the violin.
我们中国学生固应遵守这条规则。但实际上,诚如一位语法家所说,人们十之有八成会说出甚至写出例(5)那样的句子,因为人们在说not only时,往往并未同时已想好全句的结构。所以,我们不但学习语法规则,更要学习习惯用法。
43 not only 如在句首,全句即须倒装吗?
有一读者问:根据一些语法书的解说, not only...but also 引导并列主语时, not only 如在句首,全句须倒装,但在一些书中却出现了这样的句子:
(1)Not only he but also I am a teacher.
这是怎么回事?
你引证中的“并列主语”应改为“并列句”就对了。如:
(2)Not only was she a good singer, but she was also a graceful dancer.
(3)Not only did she sing well, but she also danced gracefully.
在这种情况下,句子结构一般需要倒装(也有不倒装的情况)。但例(1)中的 not only...but also 所连接的不是两个分句,而是两个主语(即并列主语),所以不需要倒装,而且也不可能倒装。这种由 not only... but also 将两个主语连接在一起的情况是比较常见的。再如:
(4)Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
(5)Not only he but also I am invited.
(6)Not only I, but (also) all other men say so.
44 on account of可引导一个从句吗?
有一读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)The new story is about a guy who was one of Piper Gunn's men. ...His name was Clowny Macpherson, because people always laughed at him on account of he looked silly.
就我所知,on account of是一短语介词,其义相当于because of,后须接一名词或名词性短语,如:
(2)The game was put off on account of rain.
但这里的on account of却引导一个从句,请问这是正确英语吗?
这里的on account of he looked silly是正确英语,但恐怕不是标准英语,一般英语词典皆未收纳on account of的这种相当于连词because的用法。然而这种非标准用法在英美作品中并不罕见,再如:
(3)Scotsmen, we're told, are virile on account of they don't wear knickers under their kilts.
(4)His feet are on the ground on account of no money remained for a pedestal.
(5)I'm a little bothered on account of the real reason I called was to tell you there isn't any surveillance outside.
有一本美国出版的辞书上说,on account of的这种用法只限于方言,它有时出现于书面语中往往是为了取得一种诙谐的效果。又,具体到句(1)中的on account of,也许部分是由于其前已有because所致。
45 It's years since... 是一常见句型
有一读者问: 如何做这道题:
(1)— What was the party like?
— Wonderful. It's years_________I enjoyed myself so much.
A. after B. when C. before D. since
应选D,即连词since。为什么只能选since呢? 这是因为“It is(美国英语用has been)+表时间的名词+since引导的状语从句”是一个固定的句型,句型中的连词since不可更换作别的连词。since在此的意思是“自从”。再如:
(2)It's two years since I left school. (也可说Two years have passed since I left school)
since引导的从句有时亦可用现在完成时,如:
(3)It's a long time since I've seen you.
46 连词 since 的这种用法如何讲?
有一读者问:最近看到一本书上说,since 引导的从句中的连系动词如是过去式,它就表示一种状态的结束,如:
(1)It is already three years since he was a teacher.
其意是:他不当教师已经三年了。对于这种用法,我不太清楚,请给予答复。
你所看到的那本书上的说明以及所举的例句都是正确的。一般说来,意谓“自从”的连词 since 所引导的从句的谓语动词,若是无限动词或静态动词(包括连系动词),其所表的动作或状态即已结束,并不延续到现在。再如:
(2)It's a long time since I lived here.
这句话中的 lived 也表示其动作已结束,所以全句的意思是:我不住在此地已有很久了。
但如将例(1)中的 was 与例(2)中的 lived 分别改用现在完成时 has been 与 have lived,其所表的状态与动作即意味着延续至今,例(1)与例(2)即可分别译作“我当教师已三年”与“我住在此地已很久”了。
47 so that从句在此表目的抑或结果?
有一读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)Bring it nearer so that I may see it better.
问so that从句表目的还是结果?
表目的。一般说来,含有may, can, will等词的so that从句皆表目的,因为它们皆指将来。例如:
(2)Speak clearly so that they may understand you. (may亦可代之以should)
(3)I must learn English well so that I can serve the people better.
(4)She dresses like that so that everyone will notice her.
表结果的从句则常不用上述助动词或情态动词,而且其前常有一逗号,例如:
(5)He fell in the water, so that all his clothes got wet.
(6)He was ill, so that he didn't come.
这种前面有逗号的表结果的so that从句也可以看作与前面一句并列的分句。但也有像下面句子的情况:
(7)The room was packed with people so that we couldn't get in.
在这个句子中,so that从句显然也表结果,但有两点值得注意:一是其前没有逗号(说明表结果的so that从句之前并不一定要有逗号),二是它虽是含有could,但其所在的so that从句仍可表结果。
48 so's何意?
有一读者问: 《现代英语表现法》第48页上有这样一句话:
(1)Wants Daisy and me to hurry up and mussy so's she can have a rest.
so's指什么?
so's 相当于 so as,而so as在英语俗语(vulgar English)中常用以替代规范的so that,其后常接can或could。这种so as...can (could)从句常被用作目的状语。再如:
(2)I told him off so as he could hardly look me in the face.
(3)They are kicking up a row so as you can't hear the birds singing.
(4)I reckon Mrs. Spencer described it so's you could tell.
so as亦可引导表示结果的状语从句,如:
(5)But they made so pore a business of their fishing so as after this year they never more looked after them. (古旧的,pore 相当于 poor)
so与as亦可分割开,相当于so...that, 实例如:
(6)He was so bad a scribe as his hand was scarce legible. (scarce较为古旧,现今用scarcely)
顺便提之,有的语法家认为用俗词as替代that显然是一种较为古老的用法,上述句(4)和句(5)中所用的较为古旧的文字即是很好的例证。
相当于that的俗词as亦可用在别的句子结构中,如:
(7)I can't see as you were to blame.
(8)— Did you ever know of anybody whose hair was red when she was young, but got to be another colour when she grew up?
— No, I don't know as I ever did.
49 为何要用连词that?
有一读者问I'm satisfied that what you have said is true这一句中为什么还要加that?
这里的宾语从句一般皆不省去连词that,这可能是由于satisfied (= convinced)一词在此比较正式,同时又用在被动结构中的缘故。与be satisfied that...相似而且同义的结构还有be convinced that和be persuaded that等,也多用在正式文体中,其连词that一般皆不省。顺便一提,这些结构中的that 之前都省去了词of。
50 第二个宾语从句开首一般不可省去that
有一读者问: 有这样一个句子:
(1)Then he began to talk to us about the French language, saying that it was the most beautiful tongue in the world and that we must keep it with us and never forget it.
这句话为什么用两个that? 可否省去第二个that?
这里的两个that从句是并列关系,都是saying的宾语。第二个that一般不可省去,否则就会犯语法错误。再如:
(2)We believe that every profession produces its own best and that different people can find themselves succeeding in different fields.
第一个that有时可省,但第二个that仍不可省,如:
(3)I gather he had had one hemorrhage already and that he knew that another one would be fatal. (gather之后的第一个that被省去)
上述情况皆属引导宾语从句的that,其实定语从句也是一样,如:
(4)She put up three big tile-roofed schoolrooms with the money that she made by selling pigs and that her father earned from hair-cutting. (第一个that可省,第二个that不可省)
顺便说一下,如用which代替第二个that, which亦不可省,如:
(5)I have eaten the plums that were in the icebox and which you were probably saving for breakfast.
但是话又得说回来,常言说,没有无例外的规则,请看下面一例:
(6)To make the idea of non-smoking areas popular will not benefit only non-smokers, but the whole society. I hope there will be more concern for this problem and other feasible measures will be suggested.
你看在这个句子中,动词hope后不仅省去了第一个宾语从句的that,连第二个宾语从句的that也省去了。
51 如何理解before that she could remember?
有一读者问: 有这样一句话:
(1)She had never read that passage before that she could remember.
如何理解before that she could remember? 介词before可后接一宾语从句吗?
before在此不是介词,而是副词,意为“在以前”。that在此意为as far as, that she could remember意为“就她记忆所及”。that=as far as的情况还有如我们常见到的:
(2)Not that I know of. (=就我所知,不是这样)
52 the day that可看做是一短语连词
有一读者问:
(1)Mrs.Rudolph's big surprise came the day that she saw Wilma playing basketball without the heavy shoe.
在这一句中,the day和that引导的从句作何句子成分?
the day that引导的是一时间状语从句。the day that可以看作是一个短语从属连词。如一定要具体分析的话,the day是on the day的省略形式,如此,that (相当于when)引导的从句就是the day的定语了。
the day不但其前省去了介词on(一般皆不用),其后的that也可省去,如:
(2)He was born the day his father left for England.
同属于这种结构的还有the moment (that), the minute (that), the instant (that), the time (that)等,实例如:
(3)The moment I saw this, it appealed to me.
(4)Ask for help the minute you're stuck.
(5)The instant that he was aware of the possibility of approaching her, it seemed an absolute necessity of his existence to do so.
(6)She remembered that wonderful day the time she saw me.
但请注意,上述句中的the moment, the minute, the instant, the time等之前省去的介词是at,当然at一般也是不用的。又,在上述短语连词中,一般皆用that而不用when。
53 如何理解这里的Though...but...?
有一读者问:《英语沙龙》某期说的 Though...but...在语法上应如何理解?
整个句子是:
Though the next few albums sold poorly but established Joal's reputation as writer of memorable melodies and often perceptive story-telling lyrics.
在这个句子里,连词 but 只起连接 sold 与 established 这两个动词的作用,它与句子开头的从属连词 though 并没有直接的关系。你可能要问:这样说来,though 岂不是在引导一个独立句吗?是的,though 所引导的让步状语从句由于较长,在此变成了一个独立句,这在欠严谨的英语里是许可的。其后与之相连的暗含 yet (然而)的 His massive commercial breakthrough came in 1977...按理说也应是一不自成句子的主句,但由于 though 从句已经独立成句,这个主句也就从而变成一独立句了。
54 这四个句子中的 when 怎样讲?
有一读者问:有这样四句话:
(1)When she sailed out, he flew home.
(2)When she was sailing out, he flew home.
(3)When she sailed out, he was flying home.
(4)When she was sailing out, he was flying home.
上述四个句子中的 when 怎样讲?
四个句子中的 when 显然都是连词,但其意义不尽相同。句(1)中的 when=after,并有 because 的含义。全句的意思是:她起航之后,他就回家了。句(2)中的 when=as 或 while,全句的意思是:当她在海上航行时,他已回家了。其含义是他在她到达目的地以前回了家。句(3)中的 when=at the time that,全句的意思是:当她起航时,他正在回家的途中。其含义是她起航时他已经开始飞往家中了。句(4)中的 when 也 =while,全句的意思是:当她在海上航行时,他也正在飞往家中。其含义是两人至少在一段时间内同在去往目的地的途中。
55 when 何时有“突然”的含义?
有一读者来信问: 在复合句中,如果主句用过去进行时, when 引导的从句用过去一般时, when 何时作“当……的时候”解,何时作“就在那个时候”解?
首先我们建议把问题中的“when何时作……解”简化为“when何时具有‘突然’的含义”,因为这样提不但可以揭示所提问题的实质,而且可以避免汉译可能产生的误解或不确切性。
来信提到有的人怀疑 when 是否会有“突然”的意义。我们认为, when 本身虽无“突然”的意思,但有时确有“突然”的含义。这在《牛津英语词典》(OED)里是有明确说明的(见该词典 when 义项之下的说明: sometimes implying suddenness )。
信中还提到,有的人认为 when 具有“突然”含义时,它所引导的从句必须放在主句之后,不可放在全句之首。从你来信判断,你也同意这种看法。我们对此亦无异议。
明确了上述两点,我们就可以进入问题的实质了。但在涉及所提句子之前,最好再看这样一个句子:
(1)He was writing when I entered the room.
在不同的上下文中,我们觉得这句话可能有下面三种不同的解释:
a)He was writing during which time I entered the room.
b)He was writing after I entered the room.
c)He was writing and at that time I suddenly entered the room.
由此可见,如何辨别 when 有无“突然”的含义,并没有什么固定不变的规则可循,只有从具体的上下文中求得解决。
有时从句子本身也可能找出 when 是否有“突然”的含义。你信中提到的下列句子似乎是不会有“突然”含义的:
(2)It was raining when I went home.
(3)It was snowing when he arrived at the construction site.
信中分析了:
(4)The monkey was feeling a bit scared when the crocodile suddenly dived into the water.
我们觉得,这里的 when 也不可能有“突然”的含义;否则译成汉语,岂不成为:猴子正在感到有点惊恐之时,不料鳄鱼突然跳入水中?顺便提一下,此句中的 was feeling 有“开始感到”的意思。
根据句子本身的意思,信中提到的下列一些句子则一般有“突然”的含义:
(5)We were doing our homework when the light went out.
(6)I was entering the workshop when I heard somebody call after me.
(7)I was walking in the street when I met him.
现在谈几个其他有关问题:
1. 来信认为 when 具有“突然”含义时,从意义上看,从句变为主,主句反变为从,我们完全同意。这种结构其实也是一种倒装形式,有的语法家管它叫做“倒装从属”(inverse subordination)。由此可见,所谓主句和从句,俱是语法范畴,并非逻辑范畴。
2. 来信认为,在我们所讨论的这种结构中,过去进行时表背景,我们也同意。但如何决定过去进行时表的是背景呢?恐怕仍须看全句意义和上下文。
3. 来信认为:
(8)I was walking to the station when I met Little Tom.
要比
(9)When I was walking to the station, I met Little Tom.
“更普通”。我们的感觉是:例(9)在不同的上下文中也可能有不同的解释。如果主句 I met Little Tom 是出乎意料的事,那确实不如改写为例(8)好。但这个句子(仍指例[9])在一定的上下文中,则完全有可能用来回答这样的问题:
(10)What happened when you were walking to the station?
像例(9)这样的句型也是很常见的,再如:
(11)When I was going away, my mother followed me to the door to see me off.
4. 来信说下面一句话令人费解:
(12)When we arrived she was making some fresh coffee.
这也是一种较常见的句式,通常表示 arriving 发生在 making 所持续的时段之中。句子的重点在主句,从句是一个已知事实,只表一个特定的时间。
5. 信中说有的人认为:when 从句如能移至句首而其意义不变,则不会有“突然”的含义; when 从句如不能移至句首或如移至句首而其意义已变, when 则有“突然”的含义。 换言之, when 如无“突然”的含义,它所引导的从句即可移位, when 如有“突然”的含义,则不可移位。我们认为这种看法实际上等于说 when 具有“突然”含义时,它所引导的从句只能放在主句之后,不能放在全句之首。而这一点,我们在前面已经谈过了。
56 be about to...when...是一句型
有一读者问: 有这样一道选择题:
(1)He was_________when I walked into the room.
A. ready for leaving B. about to leave
C. on the point of leaving D. already to leave
答案为B,其他几个答案为什么不行?
之所以应选B是因为其后有一when(有“突然”或“意外”的内涵)从句的缘故。这是一种惯用搭配,再如:
(2)She was about to leave when Mark arrived so she stayed a little longer.
57 有关 whether 的一些用法
有一读者问:有这样两个句子:
(1)I wonder whether it will rain or not.
(2)I'm not quite sure whether I have a copy.
whether 之后有时跟 or not,有时则没有。不知二者有何区别?我曾看到 whether 从句不可用于否定句,对吗?为什么上述句(2)不可用 if?
我们对此答案如下:
1. whether 之后有无 or not,在意义上无甚不同,只是加上 or not 可使“是否”的意味更加鲜明而已。
2. whether 从句可用于否定句,除如上述句(2)外,再如:
(3)I don't know whether he is at home or at the office.
3. 上述句(2)之所以不用 if 替换 whether,是因为 sure 之后省去了介词of,而介词之后一般不可后接 if 从句,再如:
(4)There is some doubt as to whether the document is genuine.(as to 后不可接 if 从句)
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