Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce（课件）《电子商务专业英语》（中国水利电力出版社）

An English Course for E-Commerce (The Second Edition) Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 1 电子商务专业英语 9-2 Key points: Jurisdiction on the Internet Difficult points: Intellectual Property Rights ,Protection of Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 2 电子商务专业英语 9-3 Requirements: Jurisdiction on the Internet Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce The ways that the Internet can be used to find information about an individual Protection of Privacy Four main types of intellectual property in EC 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 3 电子商务专业英语 9-4 New Words & Expressions: Jurisdiction n. 司法权，裁判权，管辖权 submit to 使服从，服从 lawsuit n. 诉讼 statute n. 法令，法规，成文法 intentional adj. 有意图的，故意的 transaction n. 办理，交易 negligent adj. 疏忽的，粗心大意的 judicial comity 司法礼让 legal entity 法人实体 deal with 安排，处理 cost-benefit adj. 成本效益(分析)的 tort n. 民事侵权行为 dispute n. 争论，争端 engage in 使从事于，参加 arise from 由...而引起，由...而产生 attorney n. 律师 defendant n. 被告 preliminary adj. 预备的，初步 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Abbreviations: URL (Uniform Resource Locator) 统一资源定位器，因特网地址 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 4 电子商务专业英语 9-5 A contract is a promise or set of promises between two or more legal entities—people or corporations—that provides for an exchange of value (goods, services, or money) between or among them. A tort is an intentional or negligent action taken by a legal entity that causes harm to another legal entity. People or corporations that wish to enforce their rights based on either contract or tort law must file their claims in courts with jurisdiction to hear their cases. A court has sufficient jurisdiction in a matter if it has both subject-matter jurisdiction and personal jurisdiction. 合同是两个或多个法律实体（个人或公司）之间交换某种价值（商品、服务或货币）的一个或一组协议。民事侵权行为是一个法人实体对另一个法人实体造成伤害的有意或过失的行动。想要基于合同和民事侵权行为法来行使权力的人或公司，必须到对其案件拥有管辖权的法院提出申诉。同时拥有属物管辖权和属人管辖权的法院才具有足够的管辖权。 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 5 电子商务专业英语 9-6 9.1.1 Subject-Matter Jurisdiction Subject-matter jurisdiction is a court’s authority to decide a particular type of dispute. The rules for determining whether a court has subject-matter jurisdiction are clear and easy to apply. Few disputes arise over subject-matter jurisdiction. 属物管辖权是法院决定某一特定类型争端的权力。 决定一个法院是否有属物管辖权的规定很明确也容易应用。属物管辖权很少出现争议。 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 6 电子商务专业英语 9-7 9.1.2 Personal Jurisdiction Personal jurisdiction is, in general, determined by the residence of the parties. In the United States, a court has personal jurisdiction over a case if the defendant is a resident of the state in which the court is located. In such cases, the determination of personal jurisdiction is straightforward. However, an out-of-state person or corporation can also voluntarily submit to the jurisdiction of a particular state court by agreeing to do so in writing or by taking certain actions in the state. 通常情况下，属人管辖权按照合同当事人的居住地来决定。在美国，如果被告是法院所在州的居民，那么这个法院对该案件有属人管辖权。在这种案件中，决定属人管辖权是简单明了的。但是，州外的个人或公司也可通过书面表示同意或采取一定行动来自愿服从该州法院的属人管辖权。 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 7 电子商务专业英语 9-8 9.1.3 Jurisdiction in International Commerce Jurisdiction issues that arise in international business are even more complex than the rules governing personal jurisdiction across state lines within the United States. The exercise of jurisdiction across international borders is governed by treaties between the countries engaged in the dispute. 国际商务中出现的管辖权问题比美国国内跨州属人管辖权的法律还要复杂。跨越国家边界的管辖权的行使要由所涉及国家之间的条约来管制。 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 8 电子商务专业英语 9-9 9.1.3 Jurisdiction in International Commerce Jurisdictional issues are complex and change rapidly. Any business that intends to conduct electronic commerce should consult an attorney who is well versed in these procedural issues. However, there are a number of resources online that can be useful to non-lawyers who want to do preliminary investigation of a legal topic such as jurisdiction. 管辖权问题不但复杂而且变化很快。任何想要开展电子商务的公司应该向精通业务的律师咨询。另一方面，网上也有很多资源，这些资源对于想要初步研究诸如管辖权等法律问题的非律师人员是非常有帮助的。 9.1 Jurisdiction on the Internet Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 9 电子商务专业英语 9-10 New Words & Expressions: offer n. 要约 authenticate vt. 鉴别，鉴定，认证 acceptance n. 承诺 digital signature 数字签名 consideration n. 约因 disclaimer n. 放弃，拒绝，不承诺 revoke v. 撤回，废除，宣告无效 conspicuously adv. 显著地 imposter n. 冒名顶替者 implied contract 默认契约，默示合同forger n. 伪造者 stated adj. 定期的，规定的，一定的 liable adj. 有责任的，有义务的 pose v. 佯装 in stock 有库存，有现货 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Abbreviations: EDI (electronic data interchange) 电子数据交换 UCC (Uniform Commercial Code) 统一商法典 CISG（United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale） 联合国国际货物销售合同公约 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 10 电子商务专业英语 9-11 Any contract includes three essential elements: an offer, an acceptance, and consideration. The contract is formed when one party accepts the offer of another party. An offer is a commitment with certain terms made to another party, such as a declaration of willingness to buy or sell a product or service. An offer can be revoked as long as no payment, delivery of service, or other consideration has been accepted. An acceptance is the expression of willingness to take an offer, including all of its stated terms. Consideration is the agreed upon exchange of something valuable, such as money, property, or future services. 任何合同都包含三个基本要素：要约、承诺和约因。当一方接受另一方的要约时，合同就成立了。要约是以某些条款向另一方做出的约定，比如买卖某个产品或服务的意愿声明。只要没有支付、服务的正式移交或其他报酬，就可以废止要约。承诺是一种接受要约及其所有规定条款的意愿的表达。约因是谈判后交换某种形式的价值（如金钱、财产或未来的服务）。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 11 电子商务专业英语 9-12 9.2.1 Written Contracts on the Web Most courts will hold that a writing exists when the terms of a contract have been reduced to some tangible form. Courts have held that tape recordings of spoken words, computer files on disks, and faxes are writings. Thus, the parties to an electronic commerce contract should find it relatively easy to satisfy the writing requirement. 大多数法院认为书面形式是合同条款的有形存在。法院认为说话的录音、磁盘上的计算机文件和传真属于书面形式。因此，电子商务合同的当事人会发现满足书面形式要求是相对容易的。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 12 电子商务专业英语 9-13 9.2.2 Warranties on the Web Any contract for the sale of goods includes implied warranties. A seller implicitly warrants that the goods it offers for sale are fit for the purposes for which they are normally used. If the seller knows specific information about the buyer’s requirements, acceptance of an offer from that buyer may result in an additional implied warranty of fitness, which suggests that the goods are suitable for the specific uses of that buyer. 任何商品销售合同都包括隐含的担保。卖方隐含担保它所提供的商品满足这种商品的通常用途。如果卖方知道买方的具体要求，接受买方要约会产生另一个隐含担保，即所售商品适合买方的特殊用途。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 13 电子商务专业英语 9-14 9.2.2 Warranties on the Web Sellers can also create explicit warranties by providing a specific description of the additional warranty terms. It is also possible for a seller to create explicit warranties, often unintentionally, by making general statements in brochures or other advertising materials about product performance or suitability for particular tasks. 卖方也可以通过提供额外担保条款的具体描述来建立明确的担保。卖方也可能通过在产品手册或其他广告材料中陈述产品性能或特殊用途而无意识地提供明确的担保。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 14 电子商务专业英语 9-15 9.2.2 Warranties on the Web Sellers can avoid some implied warranty liability by making a warranty disclaimer. A warranty disclaimer is a statement declaring that the seller will not honor some or all implied warranties. To be legally effective, the warranty disclaimer must be stated obviously and must be easy for a buyer to find on the Web site. 卖方可以通过担保解除声明来避免隐含担保责任。担保解除声明是宣称卖方不会兑现一些或全部隐含担保的声明。 要想在法律上有效，担保解除声明必须明确陈述并让买方容易在网站找到。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 15 电子商务专业英语 9-16 9.2.3 Authority to Form Contracts A contract is formed when an offer is accepted for consideration. Problems can arise when the acceptance is issued by an imposter or someone who does not have the authority to bind the company to a contract. In electronic commerce, the online nature of acceptances can make it relatively easy for identity forgers to pose as others. 接受要约后就达成了合同。如果要约或承诺是冒名顶替者或某个无权约束公司履行合同的人发出时，问题就出现了。在电子商务中，承诺的在线特点使身份伪造者冒充他人相对容易。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 16 电子商务专业英语 9-17 9.2.3 Authority to Form Contracts Fortunately, the Internet technology that makes forged identities so easy to create also provides the means to avoid being deceived by a forged identity. Companies and individuals can use digital signatures to establish identity in online transactions. 幸运的是，互联网技术既让伪造身份很容易，也提供了避免被伪造身份欺骗的方法。在线交易中，公司和个人可以使用数字签名来识别身份。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 17 电子商务专业英语 9-18 9.2.3 Authority to Form Contracts Determining whether an individual has the authority to commit a company to an online contract is a greater problem than forged identities in electronic commerce. This issue, called authority to bind, can arise when an employee of a company accepts a contract and the company later asserts that the employee did not have such authority. Digital signatures and certificates from a certification authority is a good electronic solution. 在电子商务中，决定某人是否有权代表公司签订在线合同是比伪造身份更大的问题。如果某公司的一个雇员接受了一份合同，但公司事后声称该雇员没有这个权限时，这个问题（称为授权承诺）就产生了。采用认证中心签发的数字签名和证书是一种较好的电子解决方法。 9.2 Contracting and Contract Enforcement in Electronic Commerce Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 18 电子商务专业英语 9-19 New Words & Expressions: common law 习惯法，不成文法 access vt. 访问，存取 cumbersome adj. 讨厌的，麻烦的 invade v. 侵入，侵犯 in combination with 与...结合 fraud n. 欺骗，欺诈行为 tax evasion 逃税，漏税 apprehend v. 逮捕 newsgroup 新闻组 surveillance n. 监视，监督 wiretap v. 搭线窃听，窃听 registration n. 注册 browser n. 浏览器 back and forth 来回地 disclosure n. 泄露，暴露 opt-out选择性退出 Consumer Empowerment Act 消费者授权法 opt-in 选择性加入 empirical adj. 实证的 dissemination n. 传播，散布 9.3 Privacy Abbreviations: CRM(Customer Relationship Management) 客户关系管理 FTC（Federal Trade Commission）联邦贸易委员会 EU Data Protection Directive 欧盟数据保护指令 ISP（Internet service provider） 互联网服务提供商 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 19 电子商务专业英语 9-20 Privacy means different things to different people. In general, privacy is the right to be left alone and the right to be free of unreasonable personal intrusions. The definition of privacy can be interpreted quite broadly. However, the following two rules have been followed fairly closely in past U.S. court decisions: (1) The right of privacy is not absolute. Privacy must be balanced against the needs of society. (2) The public’s right to know is superior to the individual’s right of privacy. 隐私权对不同的人意味着不同的内容。通常，隐私权是指独处和免受他人无理打扰的权利。 隐私权的定义很宽泛。但是，以下两条准则在过去的美国法庭判决中得到了非常严密的执行：（l）隐私权不是绝对的，隐私权必须与社会需要相平衡。（2）公众的知情权优于个人的隐私权。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 20 电子商务专业英语 9-21 9.3.1 Collecting Information about Individuals The Internet offers a number of opportunities to collect private information about individuals. Here are some of the ways that the Internet can be used to find information about an individual: • By reading an individual’s newsgroup postings • By looking up an individual’s name and identity in an Internet directory • By reading an individual’s e-mail 互联网给收集个人信息提供了许多机会。以下是运用互联网收集个人信息的一些方式： ·查看个人新闻组记录 ·在互联网目录上查找个人姓名和身份 ·阅读个人电子邮件 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 21 电子商务专业英语 9-22 9.3.1 Collecting Information about Individuals • By conducting surveillance on employees • By wiretapping wireline and wireless communication lines and listening to employees • By asking an individual to complete a Web site registration • By recording an individual’s actions as they navigate the Web with a browser, usually using cookies ·监视员工 ·窃听有线／无线通信信道及员工通信 ·要求个人完成网站注册 ·记录个人使用浏览器浏览网页的活动，通常使用 cookies 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 22 电子商务专业英语 9-23 9.3.1 Collecting Information about Individuals (1) Web Site Registration All B2C and marketing Web sites ask visitors to fill out registration forms. During the process, customers voluntarily provide their names, addresses, phone numbers, e-mail addresses, sometimes their hobbies and likes or dislikes, and so forth in return for information, for the chance to win a lottery, or for some other item of exchange. There are few restraints on the ways in which the site can use this information. （1）网站注册 所有的 B2C 和营销网站都会要求访问者填写注册表。在这个过程中，顾客为了获取信息，获得某次抽奖的机会，或是为了交换其它商品，都会自愿提供关于姓名、地址、电话号码、电子邮件地址，有时还提供个人的业余爱好及偏好等信息。网站使用这些信息的方式几乎没有约束。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 23 电子商务专业英语 9-24 9.3.1 Collecting Information about Individuals (2) Cookies Another way that a Web site can gather information about an individual is by using cookies. A cookie is a small piece of data that is passed back and forth between a Web site and an end user’s browser as the user navigates the site. Cookies allow Web sites to collect detailed information about a user’s preferences, interests, and surfing patterns. The personal profiles created by cookies are often more accurate than self-registration because users have a tendency to falsify information in a registration form. （2）Cookies 另外一种收集个人信息的方法是使用cookies。在互联网术语中， cookie 是指当用户浏览网站时，在网站与终端用户浏览器之间往来的一小段信息。 Cookies允许网站收集用户的偏好、兴趣以及网络冲浪方式的具体信息。通过 cookies 收集的个人信息通常比从用户自己注册获得的信息更精确，因为用户有极大的可能在注册表中填写虚假的信息。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 24 电子商务专业英语 9-25 9.3.2 Protection of Privacy The ethical principles commonly used when it comes to the collection and use of personal information also apply to information collected in e-commerce. These principles include the following: • Notice/awareness. Consumers must be given notice of an entity’s information practices prior to collection of personal information. Consumers must be able to make informed decisions about the type and extent of their disclosures based on the intentions of the party collecting the information. 收集和使用个人信息时通常所遵循的道德原则同样适用于电子商务环境下收集的信息。这些原则包括以下方面： ·通知／了解。在某组织收集个人信息之前，消费者必须被告知该组织的信息收集活动。在了解另一方信息收集目的的基础上，消费者必须能够对披露信息的类型与程度做出明智的决定。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 25 电子商务专业英语 9-26 9.3.2 Protection of Privacy • Choice/consent. Consumers must be made aware of their options as to how their personal information may be used, as well as any potential secondary uses of the information. Consent may be granted through opt-out clauses, which require steps to prevent collection of information. In other words, no action equals consent. Or, consumers may grant consent through opt-in clauses, which require steps to allow the collection of information. ·选择／同意。消费者必须了解他们能够选择个人信息如何使用，包括信息的任何可能的二次使用。同意可以符合选择性退出的条款，这需要消费者执行一些步骤来阻止信息的收集。换句话说，没有行动就意味着同意信息被收集。或者，消费者可以通过选择性加入条款表示同意，这需要消费者采取一些步骤来允许个人信息的收集。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 26 电子商务专业英语 9-27 9.3.2 Protection of Privacy • Access/participation. Consumers must be able to access their personal information and challenge the validity of the data. • Integrity/security Consumers must be assured that their personal data are secure and accurate. It is necessary for those collecting the data to take whatever precautions are required to ensure that data are protected from loss, unauthorized access, destruction, and fraudulent use, and to take reasonable steps to gain information from reputable and reliable sources. ·访问／参与。消费者必须能够访问他们的个人信息并对数据的有效性提出质疑。 ·完整／安全。必须确保消费者个人数据的安全与准确。收集信息者有必要采取各种预防措施来防止数据丢失、未授权的访问、损害或欺骗性使用并采取合理步骤从权威可靠的来源收集信息。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 27 电子商务专业英语 9-28 9.3.2 Protection of Privacy • Enforcement/redress. A method of enforcement and remedy must be available. Otherwise, there is no real deterrent or enforceability for privacy issues. ·执行／纠正。必须有执行和纠正的方法。否则，在隐私权问题上，就没有真正的威慑和执行力。 9.3 Privacy Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 28 电子商务专业英语 9-29 New Words & Expressions: copyright n. 版权，著作权 trademark n. 商标 domain name 域名 patent n. 专利(权) exclusive adj. 排他的，专有的 logo n. 标识，商标，标识语 treaty n. 条约，协议 Berne Convention 伯尔尼公约 injunction n. 命令，禁令 infringement n. 违反，侵害 criminal adj. 犯罪的，刑事的 cryptography n. 密码学，密码术 digital watermark 数字水印 pirate v. 盗印，盗版 the Federal Dilution Act 联邦商 标反淡化法 fake adj. 假的 subsidiary adj.附属的 monopoly n. 垄断，垄断者 pornographic adj. 色情的，色情作品的 arbitration n. 仲裁，公断 the National Arbitration Forum 国家仲裁论坛 Cybersquatting n. 域名抢注 the Global Internet Project 全球互联网计划联盟 intelligent agent 智能代理Disputes.org/eResolution Consortium 电子争端解决同盟 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 29 电子商务专业英语 9-30 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Abbreviations: WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) 世界知识产权组织 NSI （Network Solutions, Inc.）网络解决方案公司 ICANN（the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers）互联网名称与数字地址分配机构 CORE （The Council of Registrars） 欧洲注册委员会 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 30 电子商务专业英语 9-31 9.4.1 Copyrights A copyright is an exclusive grant from the government that confers on its owner an essentially exclusive right to: (1) reproduce a work, in whole or in part, and (2) distribute, perform, or display it to the public in any form or manner, including the Internet. 版权是由政府授予，允许被授权人专有的某种特权。包括：（1）全部或者部分地复制某件作品的权利( 2 ）可以以任何形式和方式，包括通过互联网，向公众发布，演示，或展出该作品的权利。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 31 电子商务专业英语 9-32 9.4.1 Copyrights A copyright owner may seek a court injunction to prevent or stop any infringement and to claim damages. Certain kinds of copyright infringements also incur criminal liabilities. These include: commercial production of infringing works, selling or dealing in infringing works, possessing infringing works for trade or business, and manufacturing and selling technology for defeating copyright protection systems. 版权所有者可以通过法院的禁令来阻止任何侵犯版权的行为并要求损害赔偿。某些侵犯版权的行为需要承担刑事责任。这些行为包括：侵犯版权的作品的商业生产，销售或交易侵犯版权的作品，因贸易或商业目的持有侵犯版权的作品，以及制造和销售破坏版权保护系统的技术。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 32 电子商务专业英语 9-33 9.4.2 Trademarks A trademark is a symbol used by businesses to identify their goods and services. The symbol can be composed of words, designs, letters, numbers, shapes, a combination of colors, or other such identifiers. Trademarks need to be registered in a country in order to be protected by law. To be eligible for registration, a trademark must be distinctive, original, and not deceptive. Once registered, a trademark lasts forever, as long as a periodic registration fee is paid. 商标是公司用以区别其商品及服务的符号。这个符号可以由文字、图案、字母、数字、形状、色彩组合或其他的标识符组成。商标需要在一个国家注册以获得法律的保护。为了符合注册条件，商标必须要有特色、原创以及没有欺骗性。一旦注册，只要定期交纳注册费，商标就可以永久使用。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 33 电子商务专业英语 9-34 9.4.3 Domain Names Three arbitration organizations have been given the authority to make determinations regarding domain name disputes. They are Disputes.org/eResolution Consortium, the National Arbitration Forum, and the WIPO. If one of these organizations makes a determination regarding a domain name dispute, NSI/ICANN will respect the decision. 有三个仲裁组织有权解决域名争端问题，它们分别是电子争端解决同盟，国家仲裁论坛以及世界知识产权组织（WIPO）。 如果这些组织之一对域名争端问题做出了裁决，NSI/ICANN 将会尊重该裁决。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 34 电子商务专业英语 9-35 9.4.3 Domain Names In addition to the resolution of disputes by submission to arbitration, a legal action can also be initiated in various jurisdictions. Legal action provides a more potent protection, because in addition to an organization’s winning the right to use a certain domain name, courts can also grant monetary damages and enforce specific anticybersquatting legislation. 解决域名争端除了可以通过仲裁，还可以通过在不同管辖权下提起法律诉讼。法律诉讼可以提供更有力的保护，因为除了帮助组织赢得使用域名的权利外，法院还可以判决赔偿经济损失并执行特定的反域名抢注法律。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 35 电子商务专业英语 9-36 9.4.4 Patents A patent is a document that grants the holder exclusive rights on an invention for a fixed number of years (e.g., 17 years in the United States and 20 years in the United Kingdom). Patents confer monopoly rights to an idea or an invention, regardless of how it may be expressed. An invention may be in the form of a physical device or a method or process for making a physical device. 专利是批准发明人对其发明成果在一定年限内（例如，美国是17 年，英国则是 20 年）享有专有权的文件。 专利权能为一个想法或一个发明提供垄断的权利，而不管这一想法或发明的具体表现形式。发明可以是实体设备的形式，也可以是制造某个实体设备的方法和过程。 9.4 Intellectual Property Rights Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 36 电子商务专业英语 9-37 一、科技论文的结构 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 37 电子商务专业英语 9-38 二、正文 学术论文的正文一般包括Method，Result，Discussion三个部分。这三部分主要描述研究课题的具体内容、方法，研究过程中所使用的设备、仪器、条件，并如实公布有关数据和研究结果等。Conclusion是对全文内容或有关研究课题进行的总体性讨论。它具有严密的科学性和客观性，反映一个研究课题的价值，同时提出以后的研究方向。 为了帮助说明论据、事实，正文中经常使用各种图表。最常用的是附图（Figure）和表（Table），此外还有图解或简图（Diagram）、曲线图或流程图（Graph）、视图（View）、剖面图（Profile）、图案（Pattern）等。在文中提到时，通常的表达法为： 如图 4 所示 As (is) shown in Fig.4, 如表 1 所示 As (is) shown in Tab.1, 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 38 电子商务专业英语 9-39 三、结论 在正文最后应有结论（Conclusions）或建议(Suggestions)。 (1) 关于结论可用如下表达方式： ① The following conclusions can be drawn from …(由……可得出如下结论) ② It can be concluded that …(可以得出结论……) ③ We may conclude that…或We come to the conclusion that…(我们得出如下结论……) ④ It is generally accepted (believed, held, acknowledged) that…(一般认为…)(用于表示肯定的结论) ⑤ We think (consider, believe, feel) that…(我们认为…)(用于表示留有商量余地的结论) (2) 关于建议可用如下表达方式。 ① It is advantageous to (do) ② It should be realized (emphasized, stressed, noted, pointed out ) that … ③ It is suggested (proposed, recommended, desirable) that … ④ It would be better (helpful, advisable) that… 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 39 电子商务专业英语 9-40 四、结尾部分 1、致谢 为了对曾给予支持与帮助或关心的人表示感谢，在论文之后，作者通常对有关人员致以简短的谢词，可用如下方式： I am thankful to sb. for sth I am grateful to sb. for sth I am deeply indebted to sb. for sth I would like to thank sb. for sth. Thanks are due to sb. for sth The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to sb. for sth. The author wishes to acknowledge sb. The author wishes to express his gratitude for sth. 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 40 电子商务专业英语 9-41 四、结尾部分 2、注释 注释有两种方式，一种为脚注，即将注释放在出现的当页底部；另一种是将全文注释集中在结尾部分。两种注释位置不同，方法一样。注释内容包括: (1) 引文出处。注释方式参见“参考文献”。 (2) 对引文的说明,如作者的见解、解释。 (3) 文中所提到的人的身份，依次为职称或职务、单位。如: Professor, Dean of Dept…. University（教授，……大学……系主任） Chairman, … Company, USA（美国……公司董事长） (4) 本论文是否曾发表过。 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 41 电子商务专业英语 9-42 四、结尾部分 3、参考文献 在论文的最后应将写论文所参考过的主要论著列出，目的是表示对别人成果的尊重或表示本论文的科学根据，同时也便于读者查阅。参考文献的列法如下： 如果是书籍，应依次写出作者、书名、出版社名称、出版年代、页数。如： Dailey, C.L. and Wood, F.C., Computation curves for compressible Fluid Problems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 1949, pp.37-39 如果是论文，应依次写出作者、论文题目、杂志名称、卷次、期次、页数。如： Marrish Joseph G.,Turbulence Modeling for Computational Aerodynamics, AIAA J.Vol-21,No.7, 1983, PP.941-955 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 42 电子商务专业英语 9-43 四、结尾部分 3、参考文献 如果是会议的会刊或论文集，则应指出会议举行的时间、地点。如： Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Fracture Dec.4-10,1984, New Delhi, India 如果作者不止一人，可列出第一作者，其后加上et al。如：Wagner, R.S. et al, …. 在印刷上，论文或著作名称用黑体字，出版社、杂志名称用斜体字。 学术论文的英文写作简介 Chapter 9 Legal Issues of E-Commerce 43 Body(正文) Title(标题) Abstract(摘要) Keywords(关键词) Table of contents(目录) Nomenclature(术语表) Introduction(引言) Method(方法) Results(结果) Discussion(讨论) Conclusion(结论) Acknowledgement(致谢) Notes(注释) References(参考文献) Appendix(附录) $$